How Solar Power Plant Works

Solar power plant we visited is located at Keshegaon named as 1KW SOLAR POWER STATION, KESHEGAON. Here the power is created using the solar power plates. The detailed process is as follows -

When light hits the solar panels, the solar radiation is converted into direct current electricity (DC). The direct current flows from the panels and is converted into alternating current (AC) used by local electric utilities. Finally, the electricity travels through transformers, and the voltage is boosted for delivery onto the transmission lines so local electric utilities can distribute the electricity to homes and businesses.

There are two main ways of generating energy from the sun. Photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar thermal (CST), also known as concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies.

PV converts sunlight directly into electricity. These solar cells are usually found powering devices such as watches, sunglasses and backpacks, as well as providing power in remote areas.

Solar thermal technology is large-scale by comparison. One big difference from PV is that solar thermal power plants generate electricity indirectly. Heat from the sun's rays is collected and used to heat a fluid. The steam produced from the heated fluid powers a generator that produces electricity. It's similar to the way fossil fuel-burning power plants work except the steam is produced by the collected heat rather than from the combustion of fossil fuels.

How Solar Works

We can change sunlight directly to electricity using solar cells. Every day, light hits your roof's solar panels with photons (particles of sunlight). The solar panel converts those photons into electrons of direct current ("DC") electricity. The electrons flow out of the solar panel and into an inverter and other electrical safety devices. The inverter converts that "DC" power (commonly used in batteries) into alternating current or "AC" power. AC power is the kind of electrical that your television, computer, and toasters use when plugged into the wall outlet.

A net energy meter keeps track of the all the power your solar system produces. Any solar energy that you do not use simultaneous with production will go back into the electrical grid through the meter. At night or on cloudy days, when your system is not producing more than your building needs, you will consume electricity from the grid as normal. Your utility will bill you for the "net" consumption for any given billing period and provide you with a dollar credit for any excess during a given period. You can carry your bill credit forward for up to a year.

Solar Cells

Solar cells are small, square-shaped panel semiconductors made from silicon and other conductive materials, manufactured in thin film layers. When sunlight strikes a solar cell, chemical reactions release electrons, generating electric current. Solar cells are also called photovoltaic cells or "PV cells" and can be found on many small appliances such as calculators.

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System Components

A PV system components include PV modules (groups of PV cells), which are commonly called PV panels; one or more batteries; a charge regulator or controller for a stand-alone system; an inverter to covert solar power from direct current (DC) to the alternating current (AC) of the utility grid-connected system; wiring; and mounting hardware or a framework. A PV module arranges individual PV cells, and the modules are grouped together in an array. Some of the arrays are set on special tracking devices to follow sunlight all day long and improve system efficiency.

PV System Installation, Maintenance, and Longevity

You could install a photovoltaic (PV) or solar electric system yourself. But to avoid complications or injury, you will probably want to hire a reputable professional contractor with experience installing solar systems. While they are sophisticated electric systems, PV systems have few moving parts, so they require little maintenance. The basic PV module (an interconnected, enclosed panel of PV cells) has no moving parts and can last more than 30 years while requiring little maintenance. The components are designed to meet strict dependability and durability standards to withstand the elements. The best way to ensure and extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is by having it installed and maintained properly. Most PV system problems occur because of poor or sloppy system installation.

Incorporating PV Systems into Your Home and Business

PV systems today can be blended easily into both traditional and nontraditional homes, powering appliances and electric systems. PV cells can be installed as a stand-alone module that is attached to your roof or on a separate system, or using integrated roofing materials with dual functions - that as a regular roofing shingle and as a solar cell making electricity. The most common practice is to mount modules onto a south-facing roof or wall. PV systems likewise can be blended into virtually every conceivable structure for commercial buildings. You will find PV used outdoors for security lighting as well as in structures that serve as covers for parking lots and bus shelters.

Sunlight Requirements for PV Systems

A photovoltaic (PV) system needs unobstructed access to the sun's rays for most or all of the day to be effective. Shading on the system can significantly reduce energy output. Climate is not a major concern because PV systems are relatively unaffected by air temperatures, and snow cover typically melts quickly because panels are positioned directly into the sunlight. Abundant year-round sunshine makes solar energy systems useful and effective nearly everywhere.

The Size of Your Solar PV System

The size of your solar system depends on several factors such as how much electricity or hot water or space heat you use, the size of your roof, how much you're willing to invest, and how much energy you want to generate.

Other Solar Technologies

• Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems concentrate the sun's energy using reflective devices such as troughs or mirror panels to produce heat that is then used to generate electricity.
• Solar water heating systems contain a solar collector that faces the sun and either heats water directly or heats a "working fluid" that, in turn, is used to heat water. For more information on installing a solar water heating system, please see the CSI Solar Thermal section of the Go Solar California website.
• Transpired solar collectors, or "solar walls," use solar energy to preheat ventilation air for a building.

Reference

http://www.nexteraenergyresources.com/home/index.shtml

http://www.solartechnologies.com/

http://www.gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/

http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/green-living-pictures.htm

http://vicgurav.blogspot.in/

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WDM Technology

WDM

(Wavelength Division Multiplexing)

Wavelength division multiplexing is a technique where optical signals with different wavelengths are combined, transmitted together, and separated again. It is mostly used for optical fiber communications to transmit data in several (or even many) channels with slightly different wavelengths. In this way, the transmission capacities of fiber-optic links can be increased strongly, so that most efficient use is made not only of the fibers themselves but also of the active components such as fiber amplifiers. Apart from telecom, wavelength division multiplexing is also used for, e.g., interrogating multiple fiber-optic sensors within a single fiber.

The idea of wavelength multiplexing relies on the principle that light of a certain wavelength does not interfere with light of another wavelength. For every data channel an independent laser is used. The light of each laser is combined to a single beam and fed into the fiber optic cable.

To be able to demultiplex the data at the far end, both channels need to use a distinct wavelength that is non-overlapping. For this purpose ”color” filters are used to split the light according to wavelength and thus decode the data channels. Of course we are talking about invisible light and hence the term color does not really apply.

WDM in Telecom Systems

Theoretically, the full data transmission capacity of a fiber could be exploited with a single data channel of very high data rate, corresponding to a very large channel bandwidth. However, given the enormous available bandwidth (tens of terahertz) of the low-loss transmission window of silica single-mode fibers, this would lead to a data rate which is far higher than what can be handled by optoelectronic senders and receivers. Also, various types of dispersion in the transmission fiber would have very detrimental effects on such wide-bandwidth channels, so that the transmission distance would be strongly restricted. Wavelength division multiplexing solves these problems by keeping the transmission rates of each channel at reasonably low levels (e.g. 10 Gbit/s) and achieving a high total data rate by combining several or many channels.

Two different versions of WDM, defined by standards of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), are distinguished:

Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM, ITU standard G.694.2) uses a relatively small number of channels, e.g. four or eight, and a large channel spacing of 20 nm. The nominal wavelengths range from 1310 nm to 1610 nm. The wavelength tolerance for the transmitters is fairly large, e.g. ±3 nm, so that unstabilized DFB lasers can be used. The single-channel bit rate is usually between 1 and 3.125 Gbit/s. The resulting total data rates are useful e.g. within metropolitan areas, as long as broadband technologies are not widespread in households.

Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM, ITU standard G.694.1) is the extended method for very large data capacities, as required e.g. in the Internet backbone. It uses a large number of channels (e.g. 40, 80, or 160), and a correspondingly small channel spacing of 12.5, 25, 50 or 100 GHz. All optical channel frequencies refer to a reference frequency which has been fixed at 193.10 THz (1552.5 nm). The transmitters have to meet tight wavelength tolerances. Typically, they are temperature-stabilized DFB lasers. The single-channel bit rate can be between 1 and 10 Gbit/s,and in the future also 40 Gbit/s.

Due to the wide amplification bandwidth of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, all channels can often be amplified in a single device (except in cases where e.g. the full range of CWDM wavelengths is used). However, problems can arise from the variation of gain with wavelength or from interaction of the data channels (crosstalk, channel interference) e.g. via fiber nonlinearities. Enormous progress has been achieved with a combination of various techniques, such as the development of very broadband (double-band) fiber amplifiers, gain flattening filters, nonlinear data regeneration and the like. The system parameters such as channel bandwidth, channel spacing, transmitted power levels, fiber and amplifier types, modulation formats, dispersion compensation schemes, etc., need to be well balanced to achieve optimum overall performance.

Even for existing fiber links with only one or a few channels per fiber, it can make sense to replace senders and receivers for operation with more channels, as this can be cheaper than replacing the whole system with a system with a higher transmission capacity. In fact, this approach often eliminates the need to install additional fibers, even though the demand on transmission capacities is increasing enormously.

Apart from increasing the transmission capacity, wavelength division multiplexing also adds flexibility to complex communication systems. In particular, different data channels can be injected at different locations in a system, and other channels can be extracted. For such operations, add–drop multiplexers can be used, which allow one to add or drop data channels based on their wavelengths. Reconfigurable add–drop multiplexers make it possible to reconfigure the system flexibly so as to provide data connections between a large number of different stations.

In many cases, time division multiplexing (TDM) can be an alternative to wavelength division multiplexing. Here, different channels are distinguished by arrival time rather than by wavelength.

Drawbacks

One the drawbacks of all currently available WDM systems is the fact that wavelength selected lasers cannot be tuned to a certain wavelength after they have been installed. Therefore, a dedicated channel card is required for every wavelength. This makes stocking, especially for immediate exchange in the event of a failure, costly and cumbersome. It can be expected that improvements in the laser technology will eliminate that disadvantage within the next few years.

Conclusion

WDM is an extremely attractive technology that has already changed the way optical networks are designed today. Future improvements will bring the cost further down and increase channel counts. 

For cost sensitive application CWDM with a coarse channel spacing and a limited number of channels are the way to go. When higher capacity and future expandability is a must, TDM and CWDM or DWDM combinations offer the best price/performance.

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Book: The Google Story

The Google Story

Google Inc. is an American multinational corporation specializing in Internet-related services and products. But it is well known to all people as the largest using search engine.

Google began in January 1996 as a research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD students at Stanford University in Stanford, California. 

The Google Story is a book by David A. Vise and Mark Malseed about the Internet success of Google. It is the story of Google's founders; Sergey Brin and Larry Page, and starts with how they dropped out of graduate school at Stanford University before creating the search engine.

The book describes that, how Sergey Brin and Larry Page created the google and what difficulties comes on their path, This is the story behind the google. Here is the story behind one of the most remarkable Internet successes of our time. Based on scrupulous research and extraordinary access to Google, the book takes you inside the creation and growth of a company whose name is a favorite brand and a standard verb recognized around the world.

Author : David A. Vise, Mark Malseed

Subject : Web search engine, Google

Publisher : Delacorte Press

Publication date : November 15, 2005

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Tattoo That Vibrates When Phone Rings

Tattoo That Vibrates When Phone Rings

When I don’t like to give someone’s calls answer I put that without attending and say that I do not hear the sound of the ring due to in crowd or in traffic, you also doing things like this but now we cannot say like this, we get catch because an electronic tattoo is developed that vibrates when someone calls you or when your phone rings. This is an electronic tattoo which is like all types of tattoos which we use in our daily life and this tattoo is connected to the wirelessly to mobile. Below video will show you preview.

This technology was just patented by Nokia. How it would work - you would get a tattoo, which, after it healed, would be magnetized. Then, when your phone rang -- or when you receive a text, a low-battery warning, missed call or want to be reminded of an upcoming appointment -- you would feel a tingling, almost like an itch, in your arm. There is magnetic material is present in between them which gets vibrated.

As we know that, Nokia is patented for this technology that would be able to receive magnetic waves from a phone and send a vibration to the user’s skin to indicate an incoming call. The tattoo is attached by a ink which is like image. The tattoo ink contains ferromagnetic inks, which is ink with iron or iron oxide. Like ringtones, users can customize the magnetic waves for different people and to distinguish between phone calls and texts. Users are also able to choose the image and location of the tattoo .           

There are many questions are arises in mind that we really want this type tattoos and the tattoo we use this will use for a particular phone or all phones, if this is used for a particular phone then what after we lost the phone. The tattoos are temporary or permanent. Is there some effect of that tattoo on our body?

After all this is just patent submitted by Nokia we need to wait for the next news, up to that says lies that “ I can’t hear your ring”.

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Facebook's Smatphone Concept

Facebook's Smartphone Concept

As we all of us are familiar with the 'Facebook'. The most used social networking site on the web. 

We use facebook on mobile also, but facebok makes it more easier because now facebook also going to launch its first smartphone. As there is no more information about the phone but the photos of this concept is leaked.

As this is a concept so we need to wait for the more news of this smartphone.

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Intel Core i7 Processor

 Intel Core i7 Processor

History

•         In the early 1970’s the first Microprocessor was developed by Intel.

•         It was a 4 bit machine that was named the 4004

•         The 4004 was followed by Intel’s 8008 and 8080, as well as Motorola’s                6800 and 68000

Growth

With each new generation of processors there were several developments            such as:

•         Smaller size

•         Faster

•         Increased heat dissipation

•         Greater Consumption of power

Single Core Performance

On technique used to increase single core performance was:

•         Pipelining: beginning other waiting instructions before the first finishes

Another technique was multithreading

•         Multithreading involves execution of two separate threads.

•         Time is divided and interlaced between the two threads in order to                      simulate simultaneous execution

Problems with Single Core

To execute the tasks faster you must increase the clock time.

Increasing clock times too high drastically increases power consumption and heat dissipation to extremely high levels, making the processor inefficient.

Multi Core solution

Creating two cores or more on the same Die increases processing power while keeping clock speeds at an efficient level.

A processor with 2 cores running at efficient clock speeds can process instructions with similar speed to a single core processor running at twice the clock speed, yet the dual core processor would still consume less energy.

Multi-Core Advantages

•         While working with many threads, a Multi Core processor with n cores can execute n threads simultaneously by assigning a core to each thread. If it must process more than n threads , say x, it can apply multithreading procedures with each core working with an average of x/n threads.

•         A Single core processor must multithread with every single thread.

History of Processor’s :

•         Generally Intel has been the dominant producer

           of microprocessor chips

•         AMD has proven to be a fierce competitor

•         Competition stimulated the industry by producing new and innovative                  microprocessors

•         In  the mid-nineties Intel begins to face true competition

•         1980’s-Intel was the only true producer of marketable computer chips

•         1982-introduce 80286

•         286 was able to run software of its prior microprocessor

INTEL CORE i7 PROCESSOR

A cpu socket or cpu slot is an electrical component that attaches to a circuit board and is designed to house a cpu. It is a special type of IC socket designed for very high pin counts. A cpu socket provides many functions including providing a physical structure to support the cpu, facilitating replacement and cost reduction and as an electrical interface both with the cpu and the circuit board.

Core i7 uses an LGA1366 socket.(socket B). it is incompatible with the previous versions. LGA refers to Land Grid Array and is used as a physical interface for microprocessors of the Intel Pentium 4, Intel Xeon, Intel Core 2 and AMD Opteron families. Earlier the socket used was the PGA(Pin Grid Array). In LGA there are no pins on the chip .Instead there are pads of gold plated copper that touch pins on the motherboard. LGA provides a larger contact point, allowing for eg higher clock frequencies. It also allows higher pin densities and thus enables a more stable power supply to the chip

The memory is directly connected to the processor. The memory is divided into three channels. Each channel can support one or two DDR3 RAMs. Motherboards for core i7 have three or six RAM slots.DDR3 RAM is double data rate 3 random access memory. This is a RAM technology used for high speed storage of the working data of a computer or other digital electronic devices. The primary benefit of DDR3 is its ability to run its I/O bus at four times the speed of the memory cells contained in it. It enables faster bus speeds and higher throughputs than earlier memory technologies. There is a significant reduction in the power consumption. It needs only 1.5V compared to 1.8V for DDR2

HOW IT WORKS:

The instruction decoder has three decoder units that can decode one simple instruction per cycle per unit. The other decoder unit can decode one instruction every cycle, either simple instruction or complex instruction made up of several micro-ops. Instructions made up of more than four micro-ops are delivered from the MSROM. Upto four micro-ops can be delivered each cycle to the instruction decoder queue (IDQ).The IDQ delivers micro-op stream to the allocation/renaming stage of the pipeline.

The out-of-order engine supports up to 128 micro-ops in flight. Each micro-ops must be allocated with the following resources: an entry in the re-order buffer (ROB), an entry in the reservation station (RS), and a load/store buffer if a memory access is required. The allocator also renames the register file entry of each micro-op in flight. The input data associated with a micro-op are generally either read from the ROB or from the retired register file.

The RS dispatch up to six micro-ops in one cycle if the micro-ops are ready to execute. The RS dispatch a micro-op through an issue port to a specific execution cluster, each cluster may contain a collection of integer/FP/SIMD execution units. The result from the execution unit executing a micro-op is written back to the register file, or forwarded through a bypass network to a micro-op in-flight that needs the result. Intel microarchitecture (Nehalem) can support write back throughput of one register file write per cycle per port. The bypass network  consists of three domains of integer/FP/SIMD. Forwarding the result within the same bypass domain from a producer micro-op to a consumer micro is done efficiently in hardware without delay.

Forwarding the result across different bypass domains may be subject to additional bypass delays. The bypass delays may be visible to software in addition to the latency and throughput characteristics of individual execution units. Intel microarchitecture (Nehalem) contains an instruction cache, a first-level data cache and a second-level unified cache in each core. Each physical processor may contain several processor cores and a shared collection of subsystems that are referred to as "uncore".

Specifically in Intel Core i7 processor, the  uncore provides a unified third-level cache shared by all cores in the physical processor, Intel Quick Path Interconnect links and associated logic. The L1 and L2 caches are writing back and non-inclusive. The shared L3 cache is write back and inclusive, such that a cache line that exists in  either L1 data cache, L1 instruction cache, unified L2 cache also exists in L3. The L3 is designed to use the inclusive nature to minimize snoop traffic between processor cores. The latency of L3 access may vary as a function of the frequency ratio between the processor and the uncore sub-system

Features and Benefits of the Intel® Core™ i7 Processor

Quad-Core Processing

Provides four independent execution cores in one processor package. Four dedicated processing cores help

Operating systems and applications deliver additional performance, so end users can experience better

multitasking and multithreaded performance across many types of applications and workloads.

Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology3

Delivers  two processing threads per physical core for a total of eight threads for massive computational throughput. With Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology, highly threaded applications can get more work done in parallel, completing tasks sooner. With more threads available to the operating system, multitasking becomes even easier. This amazing processor can handle multiple applications working simultaneously, allowing you to do more with less wait time.

Intel® Turbo Boost Technology2

Dynamically increases the processor’s frequency as needed by taking advantage of thermal and power headroom when operating below specified limits. Get more performance automatically, when you need it the most.

8 MB Intel® Smart Cache

This large last-level cache enables dynamic and efficient allocation of shared cache to all four cores to match the needs of various applications for ultra-efficient data storage and manipulation.

Intel® QuickPath Interconnect

Intel’s latest system interconnect design increases bandwidth and lowers latency, while achieving data

transfer speeds as high as 25.6 GB/s.

Integrated Memory Controller

An integrated memory controller with three channels of DDR3 1066 MHz offers memory performance

up to 25.6 GB/s. Combined with the processor’s efficient prefetching algorithms, this memory controller’s

lower latency and higher memory bandwidth delivers amazing performance for data-intensive applications.

Intel® HD Boost

Includes the full SSE4 instruction set, significantly improving a broad range of multimedia and compute intensive applications. The 128-bit SSE instructions are issued at a throughput rate of one per clock cycle

allowing a new level of processing efficiency with SSE4-optimized applications.

Digital Thermal Sensor (DTS)

Provides for more efficient processor and platform thermal control improving system acoustics. The DTS

continuously measures the temperature at each processing core. The ability to continuously measure and

detect variations in processor temperature enables system fans to spin only as fast as needed to cool the

system. The combination of these technologies can result in significantly lower noise emissions from the PC.

Intel® Wide Dynamic Execution

Improves execution speed and efficiency, delivering more instructions per clock cycle. Each core can complete up to four full instructions simultaneously.

Intel® Smart Memory Access

Improves system performance by optimizing the use of the available data bandwidth from the memory

subsystem and reducing the effective latency of memory accesses.

The latest version of Intel Core i7 processor’s is

4th Generation Intel® Core™ i7 Processor

Amazing performance and stunning visuals at their best. Get top-of-the-line performance for your most demanding tasks with a 4th generation Intel® Core™ i7 processor. For a difference you can see and feel in HD and 3-D, multitasking and multimedia, the 4th generation Intel Core i7 processor is perfect for all your most demanding tasks.

Effortlessly move through applications with smart multitasking from Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology1. Enjoy the thrill of an automatic burst of speed when you need it with Intel® Turbo Boost Technology 2.02. Experience your movies, photos, and games smoothly and seamlessly with a suite of built-in visual enhancements—no extra hardware required.

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